Issue 93: May 31, 2010 Connections Newsletter

Distributed Practice Promotes Learning that Lasts

Bill Blynt
May 31, 2010

Much has been written regarding the learning effect of massed practice versus distributed (sometimes referred to as spaced) practice. Research on the subject is quite abundant with many different examinations of the subject conducted beginning in 1885 with Hermann Ebbinghaus. In the final meta-analysis of the research it is clear that distributed practice is far more effective than massed practice in terms of long-term memory recall. Although studies show that massed practice is effective in the short term, the drop off rate of the learning is tremendous. Because massed practice shows strong initial results, people commonly over-estimate its value whereas the long-term impact of distributed practice is often under-estimated. When practice is distributed over time, individuals are able to learn information or a skill more thoroughly and retain it longer.

Because massed practice can produce positive results in the short-haul, it is easy to over-estimate how well students have mastered the material or learned a skill. Practicing a skill in a concentrated period of time or cramming for an exam seems to give better performance initially; however, most of the learning quickly fades away. This type of practice does not lead to long-term learning. It is only when multiple opportunities to practice are provided to learners that they are able to move this learning from short-term memory to long-term memory. In order to learn new knowledge or a skill for the long-term, distributing practice over multiple days or even weeks shows the greatest long-term impact. It is our goal in education that students learn essential content for the long-term. There exists a great deal of evidence that supports the concept that distributing practice over time leads to deeper understanding, increased retention and the ability to transfer the essential knowledge and skills to new situations.

The consistent use of distributed practice benefits all students, from primary age to those in college. According to a meta-analysis conducted by John Donovan and David Radosevich (1999), the effect size for distributed practice can run as high as d = .42. This means that the average person getting distributed practice will experience a 67% memory increase over those using just massed practice. Providing students with multiple learning opportunities distributed over a lesson, spaced out over days and embedded in a structured review format will best lead to the acquisition and retention of new content or proficiency with a new skill.

How can this research on distributed practice be applied to schools? Here are some ideas to think about:

Structured Review - Along with distributing practice opportunities in lessons, consider stopping every six weeks or so and having students process key ideas from that chunk of time. Have them participate in a series of activities that require them to recall core content and make connections between the topics taught.

Homework - Along with the current content, begin to integrate some questions that require them to access and use material taught in previous topics. Give them ‘homework' that provides multiple opportunities for practice on all the skills and content not just that days lesson. This will give them practice spaced out over time before they are asked to demonstrate understanding on the exam.

Bell Work - Do not just use this time to review the current days material. Structure some of the questions or activities around material presented in previous weeks or even months.

Exams - Explain to students that your unit exams will begin to have a limited number of questions from previous topics. Begin by telling them what topics are fair game but gradually require them to be prepared for anything. Be sure questions from previous topics are focused on the most essential content.

Study Hints - Give them information on the distributed practice research. Continuously provide a structure that requires them to review for unit exams in chunks rather than as one large ‘cram' session. Focus their practice on the most difficult material from the past and give them ‘homework' that provides multiple opportunities for practice before an exam.

Sources:

Visible Learning, John Hattie

American Educator, "How We Learn- Allocating Student Study Time", Daniel Willingham, Summer 2002

Smart Kit, "Accelerated Learning and Improved Memory via Distributed Practice", 2007

"How to Practice Effectively", F. McPherson, 2001

 

Heads-Up Homework Hints for Teachers and Students

Debbie Willingham
May 31, 2010

Fact: schools in which homework is assigned and quality feedback is provided tend to have higher achieving students. Fact: students complete more homework when teachers make it central to course work, collect it routinely, and spend time reviewing it.
So what does this mean? Homework should be tied to current subject matter and assigned in amounts and levels of difficulty which students can complete successfully. Homework should be necessary and useful, appropriate to the ability and maturity level of students, well-explained and motivational, and clearly understood by students. In a nutshell, students should understand they NEED to do their homework because they will need it for something else - in other words, it is not just "busy work," and they can be successful in completing it. Refer to homework content in class and use it in classroom assignments to reinforce its value. Most importantly, it needs to be done in a fairly short amount of time, checked quickly (either in or outside class), and feedback given to students in a timely manner. Is this doable? Yes, if you tie it closely to the Lesson Essential question (or as the answer to part of it) and to what students did in class that day.

Never give homework as punishment, and never use "no homework" as a reward for behavior. Daily assignments should not be overly long; research shows that teachers usually underestimate the amount of time necessary for students to complete it. This can lead to frustration by both students and parents, which does not help anyone. In middle and high school coordinate homework assignments with other teachers as much as possible so students do not receive excessive assignments on a single night. Care should also be taken to prevent any one subject from dominating a student's homework time. Whether you assign points toward a grade for homework is of course optional, but sometimes students need to know there is an expectation and the work assigned is important enough to at least count somewhat. Sometimes, assigning a point or two to each question or problem, with the points from 10-12 homework assignments could add up to the equivalent of a quiz grade.

Students need to have a specific place to write down all the assignments for any given day. They should include a list of any materials from school that they will need to take home to complete them. They should have a specific place and time at home to do homework; teachers should ask them about this and reiterate its importance. The non-negotiables for students include completing assignments on their own, on time, carefully and thoughtfully with attention to detail and quality of work. They should feel comfortable talking to you about problems with understanding assignments, skills, content, volume of homework, or other circumstances that you need to know. Above all, students need to know that the homework assigned is important and will be useful to them, that they can successfully complete it, and that doing it is not optional.

Making sure the guidelines are clear and that both teachers and students have a clear understanding about homework gives both a greater sense of organization and expectations. In a future Connections newsletter look for Heads-Up Homework Hints for Administrators and Parents.

 

Nonlinguistic Representations

Jennifer Partrick
May 31, 2010

We often speak about having students represent what they know nonlinguistically, but what does that actually mean? Marzano (2010) describe nonlinguistic representation as including graphic organizers, sketches, pictographs (stick figures and symbols) concept maps, dramatizations, flowcharts, and computerized simulations to name a few (p. 84). He continues by saying there are five things for teachers to consider when thinking about using nonlinguistic representation with students.

First, nonlinguistic representation comes in different forms as stated in the first paragraph. The type of representation selected should match the type of content being addressed.

Next, nonlinguistic representation must identify the most critical information from the content being addressed. It should not simply be a cute illustration. The nonlinguistic representation should represent the crux or the vital information being studied. For example, if students are studying plot structure, having students illustrate the characters or the setting does not represent knowledge of plot structure. Rather you would expect illustrations that represent events from the story including the climax. We must not forget the purpose of the nonlinguistic representation: to illustrate the key understanding of content being learned.

Third is the need for students to explain their non-linguistic representation. Having students explain their representation will help deepen their understanding of the content being learned in addition to giving the other students a different way of looking at the information. This supports understanding across the classroom.

Fourth is the amount of time that creating nonlinguistic representations takes. As teachers plan lessons and assessments, they should plan for extra time when giving students the opportunity to use nonlinguistic representation to show understanding of content being studied. Creating nonlinguistic representation takes time so additional time must be allotted for the activity.

Lastly, students need to have the opportunity to revise their representations. Nonlinguistic representations are another form of note taking, and represent students' understanding of specific content at a specific time. However, as more information is learned, students should be allowed to update their representation. Representation should also be revised by correcting errors and adding and/or deleting information.

Nonlinguistic representations are a powerful tool students use to illustrate and deepen their understanding of content being learned. It can have positive effects on achievement when correctly implemented.

Reference:
Marzano, R. (2010) "Representing knowledge nonlinguistically." Educational Leadership, (67)8, 84-86.